The Dick and Carey (1996) model, which uses a systems approach for designing instruction provided the actual framework for the development of the learning object. One of the best known models, its approach to designing instruction is similar to that of software engineering. The design model describes all the phases of an iterative process including; identifying instructional goals, analyzing learners and contexts, developing instructional strategies and assessments, and designing and conducting formative evaluation. However, the model does not provide specific support for decisions about the scope and sequence of learning objects like the Learning Object Design and Sequencing (LODAS) theory developed by Wiley (2000).
I was curious to find out if subsequently applying Wiley's Learning Object Design and Sequencing (LODAS) theory to the development of the pharmacology learning object would reveal different design decisions about the scope and sequence of the learning resources that were created.
The following steps as prescribed in LODAS were applied to the pharmacology learning object using the definitions and interpretations laid out in the theory; principled skill decomposition, work model synthesis, identifying the dimensionality of domain expertise, placing work models on scale of increasing complexity, synthesizing the integrated work models, and classifying the resulting work models and constituent skills (Wiley, 2000). This process was carried out in cooperation with the subject matter expert (Dr. Lawrence Spero, professor of Pharmacology at the University of Toronto) used to design the pharmacology learning object.
Qualification: Below is my first attempt at applying LODAS to a pretty complex subject (pharmacokinetics). As such, I can't profess that I have applied the theory as Wiley had intended or that I have represented the domain of 'therapeutics' correctly.
1. Determine appropriateness. The goals, values and conditions identified in the theory were deemed to be consistent with that of the instructional designer and the instructor. The goal for the learning object focuses on the development of a set of complex cognitive skills as described by Van Merriënboer (1997) cited in Wiley 2000. The desire is for therapeutic students to be able to predict the appropriate (non-toxic) use of a new drug.
-Complex, in the sense that they comprise a set of constituent skills that at some level involve conscious processing
-Cognitive, indicating that the majority of constituent skills are in the cognitive domain as opposed to affective or motor domain
The learning environment fosters a sense of cooperation between instructor and student where assessment serves to promote progress. The students are regarded as willing to monitor and regulate their own learning and have some competence in using the computer. Instructors are willing to empower students to direct their own learning and see the benefit in viewing the environment from the perspective of a student.
Analyze and Synthesize Content
2.Principled skill decomposition. The complex cognitive skill to be taught is broken down into its constituent parts.
•identify physical properties of drug (Pka partition coefficient, solubility, molecular weight)
•identify chemical (molecular composition) properties of drug
•determine where the drug works
•recognize how the drug works
•establish factors relating to the pharmacokinetic processes
- Absorption - route of administration, blood flow, surface area
- Distribution - relative blood flows, protein binding
- Metabolism - depends on chemical nature of drug & route of admin
- Elimination - route and process of excretion
•understand the relationship between the concepts (i.e. absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs) that underlie therapeutic principles.
•identify the age, gender, weight, height (sometimes), and disease state of patient
•history taking – involves taking xrays, blood work, etc…
•integrate information - pattern recognition from measurements
•evaluate info - compare experience to clinical practice guidelines
3.Synthesize work models. The constituent skills are recombined into activities that people perform in the real world.
i. Identify factors related to the structure of the drug
ii. Identify factors related to the process of the drug
iii. Recognize situation in which a therapeutic principle applies
iv. Identify interactions between physical & chemical properties with pharmacodynamic processes
v. Determine patient variables that influence biological response to drug.
vi. Measure the parameters of the disease
vii. Diagnose disease
viii. Prescribe drug
4. Identify the dimensionality of the domain. A model in the form of expertise representation is developed to illustrate what a learner can do with their knowledge. The domain of therapeutics involves the ability to predict the appropriate (non-toxic) use of a new drug and has the following domains of expertise.
a. Pharmacodynamics involves knowing where and how a drug works.
b. Pharmacokinetics involves knowing the therapeutic principles of drug administration.
c. Clinical Diagnosis. Involves determining the cause of a disease and prescribing a treatment based on the patient variables and the known effects of the drug.
5. Place work models on scale of increasing complexityA determination is made about which work models belong to each scale and what the relative difficulty of each work model is (see figure 6). The letters beneath each of the scales correspond to the work models identified in step 3.
6. Synthesize Integrated Work Models. The scales of expertise were divided into sections which approximate novice, intermediate, and expert levels of knowledge and were synthesized into work models that integrated skills across the dimensions of expertise (see coloured circles in figure 6).
(The resulting domain map still needs to be subjected to expert review to identify possible revisions.)
The work models, identify factors related to the structure of the drug (i), and determine patient variables that influence biological response to drug (v) were combined to form the integrated work model ‘drug structure and response’, represented by the blue circle (novice). The work models, identify factors related to the process of the drug (ii), identify interactions between physical & chemical properties with pharmacodynamic processes (iv), and measure the parameters of the disease (vi) were combined to form the integrated work model ‘pharmacokinetics’, represented by the green circle (intermediate). The expert-level performance on work models from all scales was combined to represent the complex cognitive skill originally identified in step 1. The work models of recognizing a situation in which a therapeutic principle applies (iii), diagnosing a disease (vii), and prescribing a drug (viii) were combined to form the integrated work model, "therapeutics", represented by the red circle (expert).
Design Practice and Information Presentation
7.Classify the work models and constituent skills. The components of the complete complex cognitive skill were classified into recurrent and nonrecurrent skills. Recurrent skills were those recognized as being executed in a similar manner each time. Nonrecurrent skills were those that differed widely according to the situation in which they were performed.
Work models associated with the pharmacodynamics domain of expertise are invariant. The chemical and physical properties of the drug do not change. The work models associated with pharmacokinetics are also classified as recurrent skills. The skills for recognizing the situation in which a therapeutic principles applies remains the same and is dependent on the patient variables and the interactions of the drug. However, the application of this information to the therapeutic domain of expertise is nonrecurrent as it is largely dependent on the clinical diagnosis.
As a result of this analysis the prerequisite knowledge for the recurrent skills was identified. Some knowledge of basic physiology and anatomy would be required along with a familiarity of the concepts of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs.
Applying this model has given me a real appreciation for the quality of work that Wiley and other's have done in this area.
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